Reflections on social sciences methodology of research

     Research can be considered a source of knowledge for different kinds of fields. According to Hernández, Collado and Lucio (1998) academic research papers report on results so as to produce new knowledge and theories as well as solving problems. Therefore,  a specific framework should be set when dealing with these kinds of investigations. This paper is intended to carry out a critical  analysis of the paper by Lindón Villoria (1998) in which she  discusses the nature of research in the social sciences, as well as the investigation and the underlying methodology employed in this field.

      Taking into account types of research papers, Lindon Villoria (1998) has followed an argumentative model in order to support her claims by means of the necessary evidence (Copley, Greenberg, Handley & Oaks, 1996). The paper presents the topic  in a very brief and effective introduction section where the author announces the purpose of her work as well as four viewpoints according to  which she is to deal with the issue. In fact, she  seems to deal with relevant aspects such as the role of the social sciences researchers, the multiple decisions taken by them as well as the deep relationship between research and knowledge in the social field of study.

   Considering the Create a Research Space Model (C.A.R.S.) designed by Swales and Feak (1994), the author appears to establish her research territory but her paper lacks both an abstract and a  review of previous research. Indeed, there seems to be no move 2 since Lindón Villoria (1998) simply defines her purposes in the introduction.

     Lindón Villoria (1998) breaks down the topic into different aspects  and analyses them in detail so as to reflect on and characterize  academic social research. That is why the author  can display the argumentative side of  her research article.  In fact, she seems to make a deep analysis of research in the field of social sciences but at the same time, support her own points of view with clear evidence. As Copley, Greenberg, Handley and  Oaks (1996) state: “an  argumentative paper is analytical, but it uses information as evidence to support its point” (para.8).

      Although APA (2008) advises not to overuse footnotes and state that they “should be included only if they strengthen the discussion” (p. 202), Lindón Villoria (1998) makes ample use of this resource. It seems as she tried to help the audience to identify sources and clarify concepts which have been previously mentioned in the paper.  By means of twelve footnotes the reader is directed to primary sources. Finally, the conclusion is quite succinct and highlights the core of the discussion.

     All in all, Lindón Villoria presents a discussion on research in social sciences that seems to be well balanced and in accordance with the purpose of the paper. She has succeded in engaging readers in a deep kind of reflection by applying APA conventions for  the transmission of information.  Lindón Villoria (1998) seems to have taken into consideration  linguistics characteristics as well as layout and format  so as to follow an argumentative structure for discussing relevant issues. Although  the author emphazices her own perspectives, she seems to manage to provide readers with a unified reflection arising from an argumentative research paper.

References

American Psychological Association (2008). Publication Manual (5^th ed.). Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

Copley, C., Greenberg, L., Handley, E., & Oaks, S. (1996). The writer’s complex. Empire State College. Retrieved May 2011, from http://www.esc.edu/esconline/across_esc/writerscomplex.nsf/home

Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández Collado, C., & Baptista Lucio, P. (1998). Metodología de la investigación. 2nd. Ed. McGraw Hill. México.

Lindón Villoria, A. (1998). De la investigación en ciencias sociales, de las “tesis” y la metodología de la investigación. El Colegio Mexiquense, A. C. 17, 1-7. Retrieved May 2011, from http:// www.cmq.edu.mx/component/docman/doc.../141-di0150111.html

Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Research papers: A Resource for Educators.

     Research Papers in education can result a good resource for educators to express, share and discuss critical points with colleagues. In fact, by means of research papers academics may have the possibility of  showing  their own understanding of an specific topic, their  critical thinking as well as their writing abilities in order to share and discuss their points of view with other researchers.

     Copley, Greenberg, Handly and Oaks (1996) state that “a research paper is more than the sum of your sources, more than a collection of different pieces of information about a topic” (para. 1). Thus the researchers’ analytical and argumentative skills are needed in such a way that their own critical thinking is presented while being supported by the ideas of other members of the academic community they belong to. When taking into consideration the educational field,  the academic papers these researchers  present can be useful resources that may help to produce new knowledge as well as solve problems. Indeed, they can contribute with both efficient and concrete solutions to

controversial topics.

    Due to the fact that  research paper writing  may involve the need for both analyzing a topic and supporting one’s own stance, both analytical and argumentative research papers could be considered the main types of research articles. In an analytical paper, academic writers are able to interpret a topic as well as discover its main characteristics. On the other hand, in an argumentative one, they may also employ their analytical skills but they may  make use of information in order to support their points of view. The distinction between both kinds of papers is stated by Copley et al. (1996): “An argumentative research paper is analytical , but it uses information as evidence to support its point” (para. 8).

    All in all, research papers can be considered to be solid and efficient means for academics to share their own understandigng of a topic. Moreover,  they can also contribute to the discussion of problematic issues that educators usually encounter. Thus, in the educational field in particular, these pieces of writing  may encourage increasing reflection on a wide range of important issues.

References

Copley, C., Greenberg, L., Handley, E., & Oaks, S. (1996). Developing a research question. Retrieved June, 2011, from Empire State College: State University of New York Web site: http://www.esc.edu/esconline/across_esc/writerscomplex.nsf/0/f87fd7182f0ff21c852569c2005a47b7

Analyzing and comparing common structures of two research papers

    After a scientist or an education expert does some research on a specific topic, the results obtained or the answers they get are expected to be shared with the community. Not only the presentation of the results per se is important but also the analysis they imply. Analyzing, comparing, inferring and concluding are tasks the researchers need to perform in order to produce useful knowledge. The main purpose of this comparative essay is to explore, analyze and contrast the results, discussions as well as the conclusions sections of two research papers in the fields of medicine and education.  They were written by Gorski, P. (2008) and Kelders,  Van Gemert-Pijnen, Werkman,  Nijland, Seydel (2011) respectively and they shall be compared in terms of their underlying structure, linguistic characteristics as well as American Psychological Association (APA) (2010) standards for the formatting of research papers.

     In their research paper, Kelders et al.(2011) separate the results section from the discussion one. Both of them are highly descriptive. In fact, the results section presents the findings of the research and includes several subsections. Kelders et al (2011) also make use of several tables to present specific data and make comparisons between data aspects. There are also specific mathematical expressions which were included in the descriptive analyses of baseline variables: “Mean scores were respectively 2.2(SD 0.6) versus 2.1 (SD 0.6)(F1,267=4.109, P=.044)”(Kelders et al., 2011, p. 40). As to the use of verb tenses, the predominant verb form may be the past simple active voice. Kelders et al. (2011) have also occasionally used the passive form. In fact, in the Effectiveness section they state: “In addition, ITT analyses were performed on all outcome variables” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 42). Besides, they include the passive form with modal verb could in order to refer to the differences between pretest and posttest scores. They remark that “these differences could not be attributed to the intervention according to the ITT analyses” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 42).

        Taking into account the APA (2010) standards for the formatting of tables, the ones included by Kelders et al. (2011) in the results section of their paper only meet some of these guidelines. Indeed, all of them are numbered; they include horizontal lines to separate information and all their elements are double spaced. However, these tables do not begin on separate pages. Their headings and titles are identical, either. Although titles express the contents of the tables, they are not presented with each word either italicized or capitalized. Headings are not positioned flush right, either. Nevertheless, there are two important APA requirements that Kelders et al. (2011) took into consideration when designing the tables of their paper. All of them describe the results of pertinent quantitive data as well as present a large proportion of information in a small amount of space so that the reader can easily understand and compare the data stated in tabular form. 

    In the paper written by Gorski (2008), on the other hand, the results section is introduced under the name Findings in a separate section. The author opted to write the results first and then, discuss them in a separate section. In the findings or results one, the data is summarized in a text. What is more, Gorski (2008) includes the most important data and aspects of his research in four paragraphs. After that, the researcher includes a section called A New Typology of approaches to Multicultural Teacher Education  in which the emergence of five approaches is clearly explained and analyzed both in a table and  in different subsections that hold the different titles.

   In the results section, Gorski (2008) also includes a table to describe some general information about the new approaches to MTE. Besides, the data included is  double-spaced and it has a brief and concise title which introduces the reader to the new information. Each column has a specific column heading. The titles of these columns are Approach, Contextualizing frameworks, Objectives and Course organization. Regarding the use of abbreviations, the one which is mostly used is exempli gratia (e.g) to exemplify something that has already been explained. Parenthesis are used to  separate  comments from the rest of the ideas: “Most often organized by dimension of systemic oppresion (e.g. racism, sexism, heterosexism, and so on) (....) “ (Gorski, 2008, p. 312). There is also an expression in italics showing emphasis on what it is described, “With and emphasis on deconstructing and  acting against oppresion.” (Gorski, p. 313).

    With respect to the use of verb forms as well as other types of symbols in the above mentioned results section, different kinds of them have been included. The past simple is the predominant tense. In fact, Gorski (2008) describes the outcomes that are related to the main questions or hypothesis of the paper by making use of different past forms. For instance, when Gorski (2008) states the results, he utilizes the past passive voice: “A majority of the syllabi -58%- were dominated by elements of “critical multiculturalism” (p. 312). He also makes ample use of modal verbs will and would to express future possibilities: “One notes that participants would be aware of and understand the various values (....)” (Gorski, 2008, p. 313). The existance of percentages is also common in this section, “The fact, for example, that 71 % of the syllabi describe “multicultural education” courses that appear inconsistent with basic theoretical principles (…)” (Gorski, 2008, p.312).

          Another important part of a research paper is the discussion section. It is in this section of their paper that Kelders et al. (2011) include the main findings with reference to the initial questions that gave rise to the research study. The sentence which opens this section shows this connection; “The results showed that the HWA was not used as often as intended” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 43). There are also some references to the reviewed literature as Kelders et al. (2011) compare results with those obtained in the previous studies: “This finding might seem contributive but it concurs with recent findings on the motivation to use e-consultation” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 44). They also tie the paper together by alluding to aspects included in the introduction. In fact, in the discussion section the researchers state: “The most frequently mentioned reason for wanting to use the intervention was to gain insight into one’s own behavir (60%). It might be that this goal was reached after using HWA once (....)” (Kelders et al., 2011, p 44).  Regarding verb forms, Kelders et al. (2011) use a variety of verb tenses. In fact, although the predominant verb tense is the simple past, simple present, present perfect as well as past perfect are also used. What is more, there is ample use of modals such as might, should, can, could and would in order to emphasize possibility and advice. “We should try to take into account the specific barriers and opportunities of e-health interventions (....)” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 46) is an example of the way in which the  authors employ  these kinds of modal verbs.

    In the educational paper written by Gorski (2008), in turn, the discussion section can be found before the conclusions section. In this one, Gorski (2008) evaluates and analyzes that the problem in question has not been solved yet. What is more, the researcher compares the outcomes with those that he has found in other proven literature, for example when he states “Overall, this study suggests, like the literature preceding it, that most multicultural education courses are not designed to prepare teachers to do the full work of multicultural education” (Gorski, 2008, p. 317). As regards verb forms, there is a variety of verb forms used in this section. However, the most common verb tenses are the simple present and the simple past. An example in the simple present can be “it requires us to help teachers understand that respecting diversity means little if this respect does not inform practice” (Gorski, 2008, p. 316).

     Taking into account the already mentioned use of the past simple in the discussion section of the corresponding paper, the following example can be mentioned: “As I reported earlier, many of the syllabi that reflected the Teaching as Resistance and Counter-Hegemonic Practice approach contained elements of other approaches” (Gorski, p. 316).  Besides, Gorski (2008) also makes a frequent use of the modal might to express uncertainty. For instance, this can be reflected in the sentence “only twelve syllabi (26.7 %) seemed designed to prepare teachers to be what might be called authentic multicultural educators” (Gorski, 2008, p. 316).   The simple past passive voice is also utilized in this section: “Most of the courses were not designed to prepare teachers to identify or eliminate educational inequities” (Gorski, 2008, p. 316).

     The conclusion section is another important part to be taken into consideration in this analysis.  While Kelders et al. (2008) do not include any section under that name, in the article written by Gorski (2008),  its title is Conclusion and moving forward. In this part, he states the problem but provides  his deductions and recommendations about the main issues in his research. An example of a conclusion drawn by the author is “this study uncovered several points related to MTE which are ripe for scholarly attention: (....)” (Gorski, 2008, p. 317). Moreover, the modal verb must in the passive voice is employed to express a kind of recommendation from the researcher “the typology itself must be strengthened and defined through additional inquiry (…)” (Gorski, 2008, p. 317). It is also important o mention that Gorski (2008) ends his paper with two questions: “What exactly, do these courses intend to teach teachers to do and be? And waht are the implications of this for educational equity and social justice-the roots of multicultural education?” (p. 317). Thus, he both paves the way for new discussions and invites readers to reflect on further causes and possible solutions to the issues previously analyzed. 

   To sum up, comparing and analyzing the results, discussions and conclusions sections of both articles has fostered a deep reflection on each of the characteristics of said  parts of these research papers.  What is more, the ways in which these researchers describe, analyze, discuss and evaluate the different issues in their fields of enquiry have lead these papers to be considered clear and appropriate examples of research articles.  Although one paper is related to the field of medicine and the other is concerned with an educational issue, in both of them, the most essential aspects and sections of research studies have been described and taken into detailed consideration.

 References

American Psychological Association (2010). APA formatting and style guide. Retrieved May 2011 from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Gorski, P. C. (2008). What we´re teaching teachers: An Analysis on Multicultural  Teacher Education Coursework Syllabi.  Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 309-318. Retrieved May 2011 from http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tate.

Kelders, S., Van Gemert-Pijnen,  J. , Werkman,  A., Nijland, & N., Seydel, E. (2011). Effectiveness of a Web-based Intervention Aimed at Healthy Dietary and Physical Activity Behavior: A Randomized Controlled Trial About Users and Usage. Journal of Medical Internet  Research, 13, 32. Retrieved May 2011 from http://www.jmir.org/2011/2/e32/.

A deep analysis of two research papers

     In this work, the articles written by Gorski (2008) and Kelders, Van Gemert-Pijnen,  Werkman, Nijland and Seydel1 (2011) are analyzed and compared in terms of organizational patterns  of their introductions, literature reviews and methods sections.

     Taking into account the Create a Research Space Model (C.A.R.S.) designed by Swales and Feak (1994),  in the Gorkis’s (2008) paper, the usual organizational patterns of research papers are manifest in both its Introduction and its Methods section. These patterns can be found in moves or cycles (Swales and Feak, 1994) which go from the general topic of discussion to the particular situation under analysis. An example of move one may be manifest when Gorski (2008) tries to establish a research territory showing  the importance of said study and refering to some some previous research: “A broad range of scholars have conducted an equally broad range of scholarship on multicultural teacher education (MTE) (....)” (Gorski, 2008, p. 309). Then a negative opening like the word unfortunately is used to establish the niche, that is, the problem or gap which led to this research : the discrepancies in the multicultural classrooms and educational practices in the United States, “Unfortunately, there exists very little empirical research examining how these discrepancies play out in practice” (Gorski, 2008, p. 309). In move three, Gorski (2008) tries to outline the main purpose of his study by means of both negative and positive ideas such as: “This is not a study of individual instructor practice or philosophy (....). It is a study of the philosophies that underlie the official curriculum of MTE” (Gorski, 2008, p. 309).  

     Taking into consideration the use of verb patterns in the Introduction section, Gorski (2008) predominately employs the first person singular in the active voice. In fact, he uses it especially to refer to the purpose of his study as well as the details of the context: “I share here the results of this analyses. I present as well an unexpected outcome of this study (....)” (Gorski, 2008, p. 309). The present perfect active is used to show that the study is of outmost importance, “A broad range of scholars have conducted an equally broad range of scholarship on multicultural teacher education” (Gorski, 2008, p.309). There is scarce use of the passive form and Gorski (2008) utilizes it in the present simple as when he states: “ Most of the published scholarship on MTE can be grouped into one of four categories (....)” (Gorski, 2008, p. 309).The simple past is also used to refer to previous studies related to the same problem, “Some professors or instructors

consciously used depoliticized language in course descriptions (…)”(Gorski, 2008, p. 309).

         On the other hand, in the paper by Kelders et al. (2011),  introduce the main topics of research in a quite straightforward manner. At the very beginning they start referring to the prevalence of overweight as a problem in our society: “The increasing prevalance of overweight is a problem in modern society” (Kelders et al., p. 33).  They also make reference to previous research by establishing a territory for their study: “Research has already shown the potential of web based applications for the achievement of weight loss and weight management.” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 32). Nevertheless, they make a further move towards establishing the need for their research, by using a contrastive coherence device:  “However, most studies are focused on applications aimed at treatment or secondary prevention” (Kelders et al., 2011, p.33). Then they make a third move and state the main purpose of this study by announcing the existence of many questions to be answered: “Many questions remain about the users and the effectiveness of web-based applications for the prevention of health  problems by stimulating healthy behaviors” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 33). Besides, at the end of the introduction, Kelders et al. (2011) directly state their research questions: “What characteristics of participants are related to the use of th HWA intervention? What effects does the HWA intervention have on the primary and secondary outcome measures?” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 33).

     Kelders et al. (2011) establish the state of affairs that led them to carry out this study by means of descriptive statements. That is why, in the introduction, the predominant verb tense is the simple present as it is evident when they express “it is important to know who the users of these interventions are.” Nevertheless, when referring to the study itself, they use the simple past mainly in the first person plural to describe, for instance, the framework, theories, social and economic factors considered to be of key importance: “We incorporated the WHO framework and behavior theories in a study of use of the Healthy Weight Assistant (HWA), a Web-based lifestyle intervention” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 33). As it was mentioned before, Kelders et al. (2011) establish the main purposes of their study by means of two imporatant research questions.

     Considering the Methods section, in the  article written by Gorski (2008) the word method was typed on the left margin whilst most researchers state that it should be centered at the start of the section. In this research paper Gorski (2008) divides the Method section in two parts: one called Data Collection and another one called Data Analysis. In both sections said processes are explained in detail. Besides, they are mostly written in the first person singular of the simple past active voice. In fact, the opening sentence for the former is “ I collected these syllabi trhough a sort of snowball sampling”(Gorski, 2008, p. 311). The first statement in the latter is “I limited my analysis to course descriptions, goals, objectives and other contextual or descriptive text (....)”(Gorski, 2008, p. 311). Contrary to the rules for the use of verb patterns that charachterize this kind of papers, the passive form in this section is scarce. An example of that verb form can be found in the sentence “once the syllabi were grouped using this typology, I began a deeper examination (....) ” (Gorski, 2008, p.4). It is important to mention that Gorski (2008) even makes use of a continuous verb tense in order to give some kind of support to the description of the procedures carried out during the first steps of the study: “In other words, I was not looking for the linguistic patterns but for patterns of thought and meaning.” (Gorski, 2008, p. 312).

     With respect to the methods section and unlike Gorski’s research paper,  the article by Kelders et al. (2011)  is divided in eight parts. In fact, Kelders et al. (2011) include the Recruiment Design, the Randomization, the Waiting List, the Research Instruments, the Electronic Surveys, the Participants and the Analyses. Considering what Pintos and Crimi (2011) state with respect to the methods section in a research paper, this study shows a very detailed description of the tools used and the participants involved when  collecting data. In fact, the said section even includes a flow chart of the study and a clear picture of the web site on which the study was based. Besides, there is also mention of both a questionnaire and its translation shown in Appendices 1 and 2. As to verb tenses, the authors make ample use of the present and past passive voice, as for example in the section Intervention, they state: “Users are ecouraged to reflect on their difficult moments (ie, moments at which it is tempting to engage in unhealthy behavior)”(Kelders et al., 2011, p. 36). However, there are other verb forms used as well. Both the simple present and the simple past active voice are used especially when defining and describing both instruments and procedures. In fact, “the Healthy Weight Assistant (HWA) is a Web-based lifestyle intervention developed by the Netherlands Nutrition Centre (....)” (Kelders et al., 2011, p. 36) is an example of the use of the simple present form.

    To sum up, after reading and working with the already mentioned articles, many important characteristics concerning their introductions, literature reviews and methods have been found, analyzed and compared between them. What is more, these essential features make the articles be considered clear examples of research papers regardless of the area they belong to.  Analyzing research papers and taking into account these aspects can make laymen as well as enthusiastic readers  have a better and concise perspective of the similitudes and differences in the essence of these kinds of papers. 

References

Gorski, P. (2008). What we´re teaching teachers: An Analysis on Multicultural  Teacher Education Coursework Syllabi.  Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 309-318. Retrieved April 2011 from http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tate.

Kelders, S., Van Gemert-Pijnen,  J. , Werkman,  A., Nijland, N., Seydel, E. (2011). Effectiveness of a Web-based Intervention Aimed at Healthy Dietary and Physical Activity Behavior: A Randomized Controlled Trial About Users and Usage. Journal of Medical Internet  Research, 13, 32. Retrieved April 2011 from http://www.jmir.org/2011/2/e32/.

Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.